Additional Proposed PAA Roots; Appendix 4. Such evidence may reveal plants known to early Afroasiatic speakers; but it does not diagnose whether they were cultivated or wild. [92], With the exception of some Chadic languages, all AA languages allow both closed and open syllables; many Chadic languages do not allow a syllable to end in a consonant. C. [82] Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. of proto-Afroasiatic cultivation. [64] The French orientalist Guillaume Postel had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and Hiob Ludolf noted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701. [145] Edward Lipiski refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. innovation: addition of *w inchoative to stem), (root #866 with *-u- tr. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6-9. Classification and Index of the Worlds Languages. [18][11], The alternative name "Lisramic" is based on the AA root *lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rm ("person"). The Proto-Afroasiatic Consonant System. *kns-loins: 326. Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. [169] As there is no evidence for the "prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic. p-Igboid [40] Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. p-Edoid fort. [93] Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. At the same time, linguistic similarities such as vowel changes help show relationships among languages. You guys might disagree with the results form the Shum Laka paper but don't distort their own interpretations of their findings. >I find it odd how Semitic is still Afroasiatic even though it's tied to a non-E haplogroup Egyptian and Semitic are both J. Cushitic is T and Chadic is J/R1b-V88. [97] All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. [70] On the one hand, the classification of languages as "Hamitic" relied on linguistic features, such as the presence of male and female grammatical gender; thus Meinhof even split the Chadic family into "Hamito-Chadic" and unrelated non-Hamitic Chadic based on which languages possessed gender. [77] Roger Blench writes that the debate has "a strong ideological flavor", with associations between an Asian origin and "high civilization". 2.12. [128] In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns. innovation: *agaw- 'cooked grain,' stem + *w n. This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). [27] The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. ), #209 + Afroasiatic pl. It's impossible to tell exactly how old Proto-Afroasiatic is, or where it was spoken, but there are a few ideas. Nara These records make it possible to classify and reconstruct many languages. [146] Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state," and a "pronominal state." [101] It is generally agreed that only the obstruents had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas continuants were voiceless. [47] Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology. p-Songhay [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. [107] Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. El proto-afroasitico , a veces denominado proto-afrasiano , es el proto-lenguaje reconstruido del que descienden todas las lenguas afroasiticas modernas . [8][9] Other proposed names which have not found widespread acceptance among the linguistic community include Erythraic, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite. ), (Sem., Eg. p-Central Khoisan There is also some evidence from. In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. Archaeology and the study of oral traditions helps linguists find connections between language families. [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. NE Sudanic p-Jen [112] Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), "front consonants" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. p-Central Togo [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. [109] Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant dissimilation or assimilation.[110][111]. In Afro-Asiatic languages: Origins originated is referred to as Proto-Afro-Asiatic. p-Jukunoid suff. innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. suff. Abstract The paper is a new contribution to revealing the Afro-Asiatic heritage in the lexicon of the Angas-Sura group of Chadic languages by means of interbranch comparison using a.o. [51] The classification within West Semitic remains contested. [89] In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal or fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. p-Omotic redup. 'be, exist'), (root seen also in #983 + probably *s caus. Mimi-N May 29th, 2020 - grammar lithuanian is a richly inflected language that has retained some of the plex morphology of its ancestral proto indo european nouns nouns are marked for gender number and case that are fused into one ending there are two genders masculine and feminine with a few neuter nouns there are three numbers singular dual and plural These are some known features common to more than one branch, though (Hodge 1971; Lecarme, Lowenstamm, and Shlonsky 2000; Frajzyngier and Shay 2012): Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. [11], Greenberg reintroduced the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, a name seemingly coined by Maurice Delafosse (as French afroasiatique) in 1914. innovation: derivation of v. 'to sleep' by addition of *n non-fin. [127] These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i". [14], The term Semitic had already been coined in 1781 by August Ludwig von Schlzer, following an earlier suggestion by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710. Some features observed in most or all Afroasiatic languages include: It remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. Bijogo [196][164] Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences. >>14700332 ; Sem., Eg. For these versions, common words found in both Dolgopolsky (2008) and Bomhard (2018) are used, with Nostratic roots shared at least by Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Semitic, whenever possible. Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. [103] Igor M. Diakonoff proposed that Proto-AA had a three vowel system of long and short a, i, and u. [80] Most scholars place the homeland of Afroasiatic near the center of its current distribution,[8] "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa. The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. ); to reach out, (only C. reflexes imply 2nd form with reconstructed *a), to remove (from surface), pull, tear, or scrape off, to grumble, sigh, make sounds of complaint, (Eg., Sem. [141] However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. Looking at present languages and going backward helps us know what languages were like anciently (Atlas, p.75). p-Grassfields These include Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Altaic and Dravidian (Atlas, p.74). Vol.1. Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table. BLACK ATHENA The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization - V - $57.73. [184] Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. Sumerian- tamil links ( included links with turkish ( said to be closed to sumerian by panturkists which also said dravidian and turkish cognated when we know dravidians were first people of asia coming from black african L3haplogroup), yeniseian ( intermediate between turkish and chinese and member of sino caucasian family that links chinese to north caucesian langages who according to . p-N. Jos [72] Earlier, the first scholar to question to existence of "Hamitic languages" was Marcel Cohen (1924),[9] while skepticism was also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann (1920s and '30s). [42] Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt,[43] but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Afro-Asiatic is divided into six branches: Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic, Chadic and Omotic. p-Akokoid [103][53] In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian) : vowels, tone, consonants, and vocabulary / Christopher Ehret Get this Comments (0) Librarian's View Copyright Status Online In the Library Order a copy Request this item to view in the Library's reading rooms using your library card. suff. innovation: 'not want' > 'not need,' hence 'be sated'), (Eg., Sem. p-Fali [186] Within the Semitic language family, Lipiski counts four different roots meaning "one". for expected *ii probably reflects phonetic influence of PC root in #254), (Sem., Eg. Oko The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. [140] Some languages in AA have a marked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. [121] For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. suff. Gumuz Kujarge innovation: addition of *b extend., imputing meaning 'to count'), to show, bring to (ones) notice or attention, (Ch., Berber, and Eg. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago , that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. [99] Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony. PSom-III. [171][172] In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. Proto-Afroasiatic phonology has been the subject of several proposals for reconstruction that are not only different from each other, but also very divergent (cf. Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. >>14700322 >Proto-Semitic language contact with PIE implies the Semitic languages themselves come from J Caucasians. [16] Several issues with the label "Hamito-Semitic" have led to its decline in use by later scholars. + stem; PS *lisn 'tongue' is a separate and distinct derivation from the same verb root), (Sem., Eg., Ch. The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic subregions of Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara/Sahel. Proto-Afroasiatic is a language and NOT an ethnicity: Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wikipedia There is no proof where the Afroasiatic languages originated, but the oldest Afroasiatic language writing has been found in Egypt and dated 6000 years. In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. The root form of the verb has only three consonants in common. [131] This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. *-kep-to cease, no longer function: 327. [108] Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. While there is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family or the period when the parent language (i.e. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. [66] Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. 28 July 1999. [115] James P. Allen has demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals. (Though I found no mention of the origin of Semito-, it is possible that this name comes from Shem, another son of Noah). Like in the English example, feet foot, vowels make the difference between separate words. in *n, as also in #210), (Sem., Eg. [152], A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. [69] This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly cultural superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times. innovation: 'knee'; Berber *afud < *puuz), to be finished, come to an end, be used up, (Sem., Cush. [142][143] Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. [95], "Afro-Asiatic" redirects here. However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is incidental. p-Mumuye Temein Meredith Holt [99] stretching out of arms), (Sem, Eg., Ch., Cush, innovation: 'set on top of' > 'cover'), (Sem., Eg. Berta The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. *kanf-/*kinf-wing: 325. Originally Posted by gihanga.rwanda. Its words and roots are not directly attested in any written works, but have been reconstructed through the comparative method, which finds regular similarities between languages that cannot be explained by coincidence or word-borrowing, and extrapolates ancient forms from these similarities. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. [37][34] Only one Cushitic language, Oromo, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include Somali, Saho-Afar, Hadiyya, and Sidaama. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [166], The so-called "Nisba" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. p-Koman [71] In the end, Meinhof's classification included languages from every family in Africa that is recognized by modern linguistics. p-Heiban with pre-PAA root *way thus having been a n. or adj. ref. [64] In the same year T.N. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by August Ludwig von Schlzer in 1781. p-Nilotic (p-E. Niloticp-S. Nilotic) [158] Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between perfective and imperfective verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages. Mimi-D of #724 by adding *-(a)C- where C = preceding stem-final C, is implied in Eg. [139], Nouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic. [90], Syllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. [5] It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africaand parts of the Sahel. < v. in #918 by V > VV; occurrence of PSC *ee (or *e?) Dictionary of Languages. Kunama ; semantics: flow out bit-by-bit), *-man-/*-mun-, *-ma-/*-mu-, *-ma-/*-mu-, (root #572 + *w inchoat. While this is not the first attempt to demonstrate that Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic are genetically related, it is the first to use the radical revision of the Proto-Indo-European consonantal system proposed by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze, Paul J. Hopper, Benfys title was later inverted to make Hamito-Semitic but over time racial connotations were applied to this name (Voegelin, p.13). envisaged a tome citing several hundred reconstructed roots; he did manage, however, to publish over a hundred (53 proto-roots were published, for example, in Hodge 1981). These classifications of language sub-sets vary according to different texts. [87], Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features. in *n, as also in #323), (possible V reconstructions: *a, *aa, *e, or *o), (Sem., Eg., Ch. [174] The Semitic genitive case in -i is probably related to "nisba" adjective derivation. shared innovation: *als-/*ils- 'tongue': *a-/*i-attrib. [21] They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. [166] There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. Gule [127], Afroasiatic Languages use the processes of reduplication and gemination (which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. The name Hamitic originates from Ham, one of the sons of Noah. > *itsan-; Omotic innovation: stem + *m n. An Encyclopedia of Language. *y: attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix: 2a. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [20], There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. The Sumerian and Etruscan languages, usually regarded as language isolates, are thought by some to be Nostratic languages as well. Archaeologists and anthropologists have long viewed the Bible as mankind's best guide to prehistoric religion, however, archaeologist Klaus Schmidt had no reason to . [134] A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques. [121] This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,[153] and is particularly noticeable in the triliteral Semitic verb. suff. [88], Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes). The prefixes ti and it mean she. ; Eg., Sem. ), (additional Cushitic alternants *-br- and *-br-), (stem + *r n. [68] On the other hand, the classification relied on anthropological and racial features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. Lafofa, p-Afroasiatic Published 1995 Linguistics This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). p-Central Chadic Olukumi p-Semitic, Khoisan p-Maji [198] Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". [12] Each component of this term was derived from the name of a Biblical son of Noah as detailed in the Book of Genesis: Semitic from his first-born son Shem, and Hamitic from his second son Ham (Genesis 5:32). [81] Christopher Ehret, O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not indicate a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. South Bauchi [40] Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. [34] The Cushitic family is traditionally spit into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. [17] The name refers to the fact that this is the only major language family with members in both Africa and Asia. Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left 'Boreafrasian,' the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). Great variety is incorporated in one family and this makes Afro-Asiatic an interesting topic of study. Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1994. rather than the subject and object. [196] Additionally, because Egyptian is written without vowels before the Coptic period, its use for comparative purposes often relies on vocalic reconstructions that themselves depend on comparisons with other Afroasiatic languages. [180] Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). In Afro-Asiatic, there are five main families. For example, the Hamitic component inaccurately suggests the existence of a monophyletic "Hamitic" branch alongside Semitic. [179] However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like. *kop-sole (of foot . Bariba Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. p-Upper Cross River [99] In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all. Kadu as denom. innovation: 'fold over, bend'), (Eg., Sem. except for Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and Malta, all branches of the [65] In 1844, Theodor Benfey first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic"). the ancient Egypto-Semitic evidence. ), (root seen also in #984 + *n non-fin. innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. [30] A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-y; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Van Putten (2018)). in East Africa. It is traditionally understood to be an adjective based on the name of Abraham's ancestor, Eber ("Ever" in Hebrew), mentioned in Genesis 10:21.
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